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World War 2:
Mediterranean Operations
This section covers not only operations in the Mediterranean
theater itself, but also the British campaign against the Italians in
East Africa and military activities in Iraq and Iran, which are inseparable
from operations in the Mediterranean proper. Since naval and air warfare
are considered separately (see sections 12. Developments in Naval Warfare
and 13. Developments in Air Warfare), the emphasis is on the land campaigns
-in Egypt, Libya, East Africa, French North Africa, Crete, Syria, Italy
(including Sicily), and numerous Mediterranean islands.
The Mediterranean theater varied in importance as World
War II progressed. Before the entry of Italy in June 1940 it was inactive;
from that time onward, until the German attack on the USSR in June 1941,
it was the main operational area and the only one where there was fighting
on land. With the Anglo-American landings in French North Africa in
November 1942 (Operation Torch) until August 1943, when plans for the
invasion of northwestern Europe (Operation Overlord) were approved by
the Combined Chiefs of Staff, it assumed increasing significance, but
when Overlord was mounted in June 1944, the Mediterranean became a secondary
theater.
Background to Conflict: 1933-1939
The six and one-half years after Adolf Hitler became
chancellor of the German Reich in January 1933 were a period of mounting
tension in the Mediterranean and nearby areas as in other regions. In
October 1935, Italy, correctly judging the impotence of the League of
Nations, decided to extend her already considerable empire in Africa
by invading Ethiopia, and by May 1936 she had completed the annexation
of the country.
Later that year, on August 26, AngloEgyptian relations
were put on a more satisfactory basis by the conclusion of a treaty,
the effect of which was that in war Egypt would be Britain's ally. The
Suez Canal was to be safeguarded by the continued presence of a British
force, but to assuage Egyptian susceptibilities the troops were to be
confined to a narrow zone along the canal itself. The British were also
to enjoy certain harbor and dock facilities and the use of railway and
road communications.
The somewhat loose alliance between Germany and Italy
subsequently known as the Rome-Berlin Axis was concluded on October
25. On Jan. 2, 1937, British and Italian relations were eased by the
signing of a joint declaration (known ironically as the Gentlemen's
Agreement), the main clause of which recognized freedom of movement
for both parties in the Mediterranean. The declaration was reaffirmed
in April 1938, when the two governments also agreed to exchange information
annually concerning any major changes or proposed changes in the strength
and dispositions of their respective armed forces. Just at this time,
Britain's position in the Middle East was complicated by unrest in its
mandate of Palestine, where open rebellion had broken out. A year later,
on April 7, 1939, Italy invaded Albania, and within a short time occupied
the whole country.
Meanwhile, Hitler's various acts of aggression, culminating
in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, and his threatening
attitude toward Poland were bringing Europe to the brink of general
war. Under an agreement announced on August 25, Britain guaranteed that
it would go to the assistance of Poland in the event of German aggression.
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, and two days later, Britain and
France declared war on Germany. By September 10, the other members of
the British Commonwealth of Nations had made similar declarations. See
also section 2. Between World Wars.
CAMPAIGNS
IN AFRICA
First British Offensive in North Africa June 1940-February
1941
British Expedition to Greece and Crete: April-May
1941
Iraq and Syria: April-June 1941
East Africa and the Red Sea: June 1940 - November 1941
Arrival of the Germans in North Africa: February
1941-May 1942
Naval Operations in 1941
British Defeats in North Africa and the Turn of
the Tide: May-November 1942
Anglo-American Invasion of French North Africa: November
1942-May 1943
CAMPAIGNS
IN ITALY
Conquest of Sicily: June-August 1943
Invasion of the Italian Mainland: September - October
1943
Strategic Considerations
Operations on the Italian Mainland: October 1943-August
1944
Allied Landings in Southern France: Augus - September
1944
Campaign in Italy: August 1944-May 1945
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